Today’s article is a continuation of the last one. We first looked into the model organisms, or in vivo models, and their advantages. However, it is very hard to use in vivo models, due to the strict ethic codes associated with them. Therefore scientists developed ways to perform experiments without the use of animal models. These models are called in vitro models (that can be translated in model in glass). The principle of an in vitro model is simple: isolate the component of interest, and study it away from its source. This article will present different in vitro models and their advantages over in vivo models.

Polymerase chain reaction: a way to get « infinite » DNA

The first example is a staple of any scientific lab. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR for short) is a technique invented by Dr. Kary Mullis (who got the Nobel Prize for this finding), and it allows to artificially replicate DNA. The technique works very similarly to our own cells. In our body, we have proteins called helicase which separates the DNA to allow another protein called polymerase to bind the DNA and replicate it. This is however very energy intensive and hard to replicate in vitro. PCR uses an easier way to separate DNA: temperature. Under high heat, the DNA will separate by itself and allow the polymerase to bind. Therefore, when performing PCR, we add the DNA we want to replicate, and polymerases. The DNA will undergo many heat cycles, allowing it to separate, and the polymerase will then replicate the DNA. With another cycle, the newly replicated DNA can be separated, and more DNA will be formed. Hence, we get exponentially more DNA than what we had in the first place.

This technique has many applications. In the medical field for example, simply taking the DNA of a patient from the saliva can allow us to replicate the DNA indefinitely and study it to know which genes are mutated for instance. But more interestingly, we can replicate DNA which we have limited access to in order to study it indefinitely. That’s how we know the genetics of some dinosaurs. The limited DNA preserved in fossils was replicated using PCR, and then studied more extensively without the risk of losing the DNA forever. Finally, hair strands or any other organic materials found in crime scenes can be used in PCR to study the genetic fingerprints and find the culprits. PCR is an amazing technique that helped us preserve DNA we would have lost, and because so much DNA is produced, we can use it indefinitely for many studies [source / source / source].

Protein purification: isolating a protein to study it by itself

Similarly to DNA, we can also isolate proteins. However, unlike PCR, we will not replicate it indefinitely. Instead, we will separate it from everything else to study its structure, or see what its effects are. Since there are so many proteins that are doing a lot of things at the same time. It is hard to determine what a single protein is responsible for, That’s why isolating it makes it easier to study. There are many ways to separate proteins, some of which I previously explained, such as Western blots or flow cytometry. I wanted to mention a last one, and maybe the most famous, centrifugation. Centrifugation allows to separate particles depending on both density and speed. When a sample is centrifuged, any molecule that is affected by the speed will aggregate at the bottom of the tube, while the other will stay suspended. In the cases of proteins, it is often used to separate all the proteins from any other components of the cells. In short, centrifugation is a crude way of separating different components within a sample [source / source].

Cell culture: getting cells to do what you want

Cell cultures are probably the most common in vitro models. As the name suggest, we are taking cells from a organisms, and culture them in Petri dishes. One advantage of cell cultures is that they can become immortal. using a process called transformation, we make the cells express genes that prolong their lifespan to the point that they will never die. Further, we can keep cell cultures forever by simply freezing them, preventing any unwanted reactions since cold proteins will not activate. Cell cultures have a lot of advantages. First, we can perform invasive or « painful » experiments on them, since it is outside of the organisms and thus no pain will be felt. We can also culture human cells, allowing us to understand some diseases better than if we were to use animal models. Lastly, simply from skin cells, we are able to make any cell we want. This procedure is called induced pluripotent stem cells (or IPSC), and it allows us to revert any cell into a stem cell. A stem cell has the capacity to become any cell, therefore we can transform the skin cells of a patient into neurons to better study them without having invasive surgery [source / source / source / source].

Here we have seen three example of in vitro models and how useful they can be. In many instances, they have advantages over in vivo models. First we can study human tissues, but we can perform more painful or dangerous experiment without any risk. However, in vitro models have their flaws. The first one is that they still depend on biological sample. Every example that I have given still requires an initial sample from a patient or an animal. This implies that we still need ethical conducts towards in vitro models, notably how and how long we are going to use the sample, and who will have access to it. Lastly, the core principle of in vitro models is isolation, and it is its biggest flaw. The human body is so interconnected that all of its parts influence each other tremendously. When we isolate something from the body, it will not react the same way. This is why many times results found in vitro will never happen in vivo. This means that many in vitro experiments have to be repeated in vivo in order to be sure that the results we see is actually happening in the body.